A team of renowned Chinese archaeologists, geographers and experts on Chinese culture on September 1 started a 17-day research expedition to the hinterland of Kunlun Mountains in Hotan to explore the origins of the Chinese culture. Organized by the Kunlun Culture Research Center at Khotan School of Xinjiang Hotan College and the Tourism Bureau of Hotan Prefecture, the expedition focuses on Kunlun culture, Chinese jade culture and Khotan Buddhist culture. As member of the team, Xiao Chunfei, a journalist from Shiliuyun-Xinjiang Daily, writes 'Letters from Kunlun Mountains' series on-site report, sharing his insights on the origin of Chinese culture and fresh understandings gained from the expedition.

Shiliuyun-Xinjiang Daily (Reporter Xiao Chunfei) news:

Not long ago, the domestic game, Black Myth: Wukong, was officially released and quickly garnered a substantial international player base, who not only indulged in playing the game but also delved into the timeless Chinese literary masterpiece ‘Journey to the West.’ Little known is that over 120 years ago, Marc Aurel Stein, a Hungarian-British archaeologist, embarked on his expedition through northwest China armed with a significant reference book - Great Tang Records on the Western Regions and later looted a large number of Chinese cultural relics.

Stairs in the stone chamber of the Niujiao Mountain. (Photo by Shiliuyun-Xinjiang Daily/ Xiao Chunfei)

In the mid-7th century, the renowned Buddhist monk Xuanzang documented in his book Great Tang Records on the Western Regions that Qushi Lingjia Mountain, located in present-day Hotan (Khotan in the past), was a prominent sacred Buddhist site. Buddhism thrived there, as it was believed that Gautama Buddha himself had briefly delivered sermons at this location. According to legend, Shakyamuni Buddha flew from Mount Gridhrakuta in India to this place to impart his teachings. However, when Stein arrived at this site during the winter of 1900, he encountered an Islamic holy site adorned with mausoleums embellished with tree branches, small flags, sheep skulls, and sheepskins. In Uygur language, “mazar” refers to cemetery.

Stein identified many such sites in Xinjiang. In his later work Serindia, he noted that many Islamic holy sites today were originally Buddhist sacred sites, which he could almost identify systematically.

A bundle of incense on the floor of the stone chamber of the Niujiao Mountain. (Photo by Shiliuyun-Xinjiang Daily/ Xiao Chunfei)

The Qushi Lingjia Mountain, also known as Niujiao Mountain in Chinese, is situated 23 kilometers southwest of Hotan City, towering on the eastern bank of the Karakax River. Renowned for its rugged and precipitous terrain, it is described as possessing “two peaks and four perilous cliffs” in the historical account titled Great Tang Records on the Western Regions. Its appellation Niu Jiao Shan, derived from its resemblance to ox horns, undoubtedly serves as a testament to the enduring presence of diverse religious beliefs throughout Xinjiang's history.

The Qushi Lingjia Mountain holds great significance in the annals of Buddhism, as it served as a dwelling place for renowned monks who embarked on arduous journeys to seek enlightenment in the Western Regions, including Faxian and Xuanzang. Notably, the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions meticulously documents the Buddhist temples and caves that grace this sacred terrain.

The Qushi Lingjia Mountain is referred to as 'ox horn' in Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Khotanese languages, signifying the shape of an ox horn. However, according to a book by Tang Dynasty Buddhist monk Huilin, it is called Niutou mountain, meaning ox head mountain.

The mountain is well-known and has appeared multiple times as an auspicious symbol in the murals of the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang: Cave 85 and 237 depict the image of Niutou Mountain Auspicious Symbol, while Cave 454 portrays a scene of Niutou Mountain in Khotan, with a hole on its peak, wooden stairs at the entrance, and shimmering water below. It is truly amazing how time has passed, yet the depiction in the paintings remains unchanged when compared to today's scenery.

Millennium has passed, the river still flows down the mountain, and the trees on the other side are still lush.

The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions mentions the existence of a substantial stone chamber within the mountain, housing an Arhat. During on-site observation, it was noted that this stone chamber is situated halfway up the mountain and comprises two levels. Facing westward, its lower level possesses greater dimensions with a depth of 11 meters. It exhibits an elevated front and a lower back, reaching approximately 3 meters at its highest point and around 1 meter at its lowest point. The widest section measures about 4 meters, featuring a small niche-like cavity as well. Ascending via wooden stairs, access to the upper level of the stone chamber reveals reduced space measuring 4 meters in length, with a base width of 2.6 meters and height measuring 1.5 meters.

The walls of the stone chamber are constructed with natural pebbles, tightly arranged in a circular pattern, exhibiting a hardness comparable to poured cement. The entire cave wall is adorned with a substantial layer of soot, likely resulting from the utilization of fires by practitioners or pilgrims for warmth and lamps for illumination. In the lower chamber, an observed burnt incense stick has been inserted into the ground.

The researcher and geographer Mu Guijin from the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, posits that this stone chamber is not a natural formation but rather resembles a mining cave excavated by ancient inhabitants. Subsequently, it evolved into a revered Buddhist site chosen by esteemed monks for their spiritual practices. Historical records indicate the existence of multiple temples constructed in close proximity to Niujiao Mountain. The Kharosthi version of the Dhammapada, presently housed in the National Library of France, stands as the earliest discovered relic signifying the introduction of Gandhara Buddhism culture in India into China. It was unearthed at a temple site adjacent to Niujiao Mountain.

"Khotan served as the initial gateway for Buddhism's introduction into Xinjiang, and its Buddhist tradition stands as one of the foundational pillars of Chinese Buddhism. Situated in the ancient oasis region of Hotan, it also played a pivotal role in facilitating the Sinicization process of Buddhism within China," said Wu Xinhua, a distinguished researcher at the Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and director of Kunlun Culture Research Center of Khotan School at Xinjiang Hotan College, “Ancient Khotan was widely recognized as a prominent Buddhist kingdom in the Western Regions and functioned as a vibrant hub for scholarly exchanges between Chinese and foreign Buddhist studies, earning it the revered epithet ‘Minor Western Heaven’ for its profound association with Buddhism."

The Kharosthi script Buddhist scripture unearthed from the ruins of the Niujiao Mountain temple site. (Photo by Shiliuyun-Xinjiang Daily/ Xiao Chunfei)

In March 2000, a Buddhist temple was accidentally unearthed by herdsmen in Dama Gully, Cele County, Hotan Prefecture while they were excavating red willow roots. In September 2002, an emergency excavation of this Buddhist site was conducted by Wu Xinhua, the leader of the Xinjiang Archaeological Team at the Institute of Archaeology of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS). The site was named Toprak No.1 Temple. With an area measuring only 4 square meters, this may be considered as the world's smallest Buddhist temple. Despite its diminutive size, it is regarded as one of the best-preserved Buddhist temple sites in the Taklamakan Desert region and contains statues and murals dating back to relics from the Northern and Southern Dynasties.

"During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Cele County served as a significant urban center within the Khotan Kingdom. The unearthing of the ruins of Xiaofosi Temple corroborates the historical accounts found in Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, which describe ancient Khotan as having 'abundant Buddhist pagodas and a thriving monastic community,'" said Zhang Huajie, curator of Hotan Museum. From the 4th to 5th century AD, Buddhism flourished in Xinjiang, witnessing an abundance of Buddhist temples and a substantial presence of monks and nuns across various oases surrounding the Tarim Basin. This led to the establishment of renowned Buddhist hubs such as Khotan, Qiuci, and Gaochang (present-day Turpan).

The Karakax River and oasis at the foot of the Niujiao Mountain. (Photo by Shiliuyun-Xinjiang Daily/ Xiao Chunfei)

In the late 9th century and early 10th century, the Karakhanid Empire embraced Islam and initiated a religious war lasting over four decades against the Buddhist kingdom of Khotan. By the mid-11th century, they successfully conquered Khotan and imposed Islamic practices, marking the culmination of Buddhism's millennium-long presence in the region. With Islam's continuous propagation, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity, and other faiths gradually waned. In the mid-14th century, through military campaigns and coercive measures, rulers of the Moghulistan progressively introduced Islam to regions such as Tarim Basin's northern periphery, Turpan Basin, and Hami. By the early 16th century, Xinjiang had developed a religious landscape where Islam emerged as its predominant religion while multiple belief systems coexisted; this pattern endures till today with Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Nestorian Christianity eventually fading away whereas Buddhism and Taoism still persist.

In the process of embracing Islam, the ancestors of ethnic groups such as Uygurs and Kazaks in Xinjiang have not only preserved their original beliefs and cultural traditions but also assimilated the cultures of other ethnic groups in Xinjiang and the Central Plains. Over time, certain religious concepts, rituals, and customs have evolved and persisted, gradually influencing one another. Consequently, a distinct regional and ethnic Islamic tradition has emerged in Xinjiang. For instance, despite Islam's initial opposition to worshipping anyone or anything other than Allah, Uygurs and other ethnic groups still practice Mazar worship today as a prominent manifestation of localized Islam.

Zang Huajie, the curator of Hotan Museum, introduces the stone chamber of the Niujiao Mountain. (Photo by Shiliuyun-Xinjiang Daily/ Xiao Chunfei)

"In a certain sense, the practice of Mazar worship is a blend of Islam, which was introduced to Xinjiang, and various local beliefs that were prevalent at that time," said Wu Xinhua.

Customs serve as a tangible representation of history. Historians, akin to skilled investigators, possess the ability to meticulously trace and scrutinize the origins of numerous customs and behaviors that contemporary individuals often take for granted, oblivious to their historical roots, with the ultimate aim of unraveling answers.

Before the advent of Zoroastrianism, Shamanism was widely practiced in the Xinjiang region, as documented in historical texts such as History of the Han Dynasty and History of Wei Dynasty. Various nomadic tribes including the Hun, Wusun, Rouran, Xianbei, Tuyuhun, and Turkic people who were active in Xinjiang at that time all embraced Shamanism. The ancestors of the Uygur ethnic group during this period were known as the Uighur and they migrated westward into present-day Xinjiang around the mid-9th century AD. Prior to their migration, they led a nomadic lifestyle on the Mongolian Plateau north of the desert and followed both Shamanism and Manichaeism.

The indigenous religion and Shamanic practices have been deeply rooted in Xinjiang for an extensive period, showcasing remarkable resilience. Even in contemporary times, vestiges of the indigenous religion and Shamanism can still be discerned within the beliefs or customs of certain ethnic minorities.

Niujiao Mountain buddhist site. (Photo by Shiliuyun-Xinjiang Daily/ Xiao Chunfei)

"The Mazar worship, a prominent manifestation of Shamanism's legacy, encompasses the erection of towering poles, the display of flags and banners, the attachment of cloth strips to tree branches, and the offering of wild goat horns. Following the ceremonial proceedings, individuals engage in the 'Sama Dance,' which closely emulates the divine movements of Shamans and holds sacrificial significance. In essence, Mazar worship continues to embody Tengrism—an ancient tradition venerating celestial realms," stated Wu Xinhua.

The rich collection of cultural relics and historical records provides substantial evidence for the coexistence of diverse religious beliefs throughout the history of Xinjiang. The presence of one or two dominant religions alongside multiple others is a distinctive characteristic that defines the religious landscape in Xinjiang, with harmonious coexistence serving as the prevailing norm in interreligious relations.

In the trip, I find both the Niujiao Mountain Buddhist site and the Mazar site are well preserved, while in the distance, farmers are engaged in drying walnuts. As the car departs, a backward glance seems to offer a glimpse into a thousand years of history.

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